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AaBb alleles amino acid appear bacterial bacteriophage base caused cells centromere chain changes Chapter chro chromatids chromo chromosome codon coli color cross crossover cytoplasm diploid DNA molecule dominant donor double Drosophila melanogaster effect enzyme equilibrium eukaryotic example expected F₁ F₂ factors female Figure function gametes gene frequencies gene pairs genetic material genotypes haploid hemoglobin heterozygotes heterozygous homologous homozygotes homozygous hybrid inbreeding individuals infection labeled lethal linkage loci locus male mating meiosis meiotic division mosome mRNA mutation mutation rate normal nuclei nucleotide observed occur offspring organisms parental particular percent phage phenotypes plants plasmid polymerase polypeptide population produce progeny protein ratio recessive recipient replication repressor ribosomes segregation selection sequence sex-linked shown single specific strains structure synthesis Table tetrads tion tissues trait transcription translocation tRNA tryptophan viral wild type wild-type X chromosome yellow zygote