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active device amplifier amplitude amplitude modulation analysis applied approximation associated assumed atom base biased break frequency capacitance carrier cathode circuit shown collector current common-base component concepts conduction band conduction electrons constant current flow current gain curve desired determine discussed effect electron energy emitter equation example feedback Fermi Fermi energy Forbidden band forward-biased germanium gives grid h parameters hole concentration ideal diode incremental model kilohms linear model load line magnitude material midband negative resistance nonlinear obtained ohms operating point output voltage phase angle piecewise linear piecewise linear model PN-junction diode PNP transistor power gain problem pulse quantum R₁ R₂ region resistor result reverse-biased saturation current semiconductor shown in Figure shows silicon small-signal solid steady-state response switching techniques temperature transformer transistor triode tube V-I characteristic V₁ V₂ vacuum valence band variation voltage gain volts zero ΚΩ