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active device amplifier amplitude amplitude modulation analysis applied approximation associated Assume atom base biased Bohr model capacitance carrier cathode charge circuit shown collector current common-emitter component concepts conduction band conduction electrons configuration constant current flow current gain curve demodulator desired determine discussed effect electron energy equation example feedback Fermi Fermi energy Fermi level Forbidden band forward-biased germanium gives grid hole concentration ideal diode impedance incremental model input kilohms load line magnitude material modulated signal N-type negative resistance nonlinear obtained ohms operating point output voltage parameters pentode phasor piecewise linear model PN-junction diode PNP transistor potential problem pulse quantum R₁ R₂ region resistor result reverse-biased saturation current semiconductor shown in Figure shows sideband silicon small-signal solid switching techniques temperature thermal transformer triode V-I characteristic V₁ V₂ vacuum valence band variation volts zero ΚΩ