genised materials, brings on chemical changes which are known by the term fermentation, either alcoholic or vinous. In bread-making the change consists in the conversion of the sugar contained in the flour into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, which in their formation distend the dough, and produce cells within its interior. The starch-corpuscles remain entire, but they are altered in form, and hence it is pretty clear that no further change is effected than is sufficient to develop the gas, and that the only objection to the use of yeast consists in the loss of substance. It is held by some that yeast is in itself unwholesome, but there are no facts to support this hypothesis, and the use of unfermented bread does not

that of bread made in the ordinary way.

observers to trace the development of the yeast-plant, and Dr. Hassall has been so fortunate as to have made out all its stages, which he describes with great minuteness, and, no doubt, most accurately, in his remarkable microscopic investigations. He says that in the first stage, or that in which It is generally used, it consists entirely of sporules, which are mostly separate, but sometimes feebly united in twos and threes; they vary in size and form, and nearly all contain nuclei, which are the germs of future sporules. In the second stage, in which the plant exists in the form of root-like threads, known as thallus, the change takes place after the lapse of some days, and only under favourable circumstances, by the sporules becoming elon-appear to be at all more wholesome than gated; a partition then appears in each, by which two cells are developed out of one, and this extension still continuing, other septa appear, until at length jointed threads, at first simple and undivided, afterwards jointed, are formed, to which the above name is given. In the third stage, after a further lapse of time, vertical threads spring up from the thallus, which become branched when the plant is fully developed, and at the extremity of each branch a row of rounded corpuscles show themselves, which are about the size of the original sporules, but darker in colour and firmer in texture. The three kinds of yeast used in making bread are called brewer's yeast, patent yeast, and German yeast. Brewer's yeast is too well known to need minute description; but when examined by the microscope the minute sporules may readily be seen within it. It is obtained from all kinds of malt-liquor, and is distinguished accordingly, as ale yeast, porter yeast, and small-beer yeast. German yeast, sometimes called dried yeast, is composed of sporules only, without any liquor or gas. It is in the form of a paste, and is obtained from the fermented liquid by filtration. It is imported into this country in bags of half a hundredweight each. Patent yeast is made as follows:-Boil two ounces of the best hops in four quarts of water for half an hour; strain and cool till lukewarın, then add a small handful of salt, and half a pound of sugar, beat up one pound of best flour with some of the liquor, and mix all well together. Let it stand 48 hours, then add three pounds of potatoes, boiled and mashed; let it stand again 24 hours, taking care to stir it frequently during the whole time, then strain and bottle and it is fit for use, or it will keep in a cool place for two months.

839. YEAST, WHEN ADDED TO FLOUR, or other substance containing sugar, or starch convertible into that substance, and nitro

840. THE METHOD OF MAKING BREAD adopted by the baker, is much the same as that which will be hereafter described as adapted to the use of private families. The chief difference consists in the modes of adulteration or substitution which are practised by some bakers, consisting chiefly in the employment of boiled potatoes or rice, when these are so cheap as to offer the temptation, or of alum, which is introduced in order to effect certain improvements in appearance and an increase of weight. By law, every quartern loaf is obliged to be 4 lb. in weight when sold over the counter, and the constant supervision of the police keeps up the weight pretty accurately; but though the same law fines the baker for delivering to his customers bread under the proper weight, this practice, I have reason to believe, is extensively adopted, and probably they will say to compensate for the trouble of delivery. But in any case the great object is to produce a sufflciently baked loaf of the prescribed weight, and to effect this, provision must be made against the flying off of the water too rapidly for the baker's purpose. This is effected by the alum, which causes the bread to be more white than it otherwise would be, and also to retain its water; but as a set-off, it makes it taste more dry than it really is when it has parted with a certain quantity, such as always takes place in 24 hours. Baker's bread does not really lose weight much more rapidly than homemade bread. but it tastes very much more harsh and dry, and loses that elastic consistency which is peculiar to new bread of the baker's make, and to bread not more than two or three days old when made at home. Several companies have been started in London with the object of doing away with all adulteration, and of selling wholesome bread at the lowest possible price; but they have invariably failed in a

commercial point of view, and have not house-rent, keep of horse, wages in delivery,

improved upon the quality either. In Birmingham, Carlisle, and some other towns the plan seems to answer; but not so in London, which has always been supposed to be much worse off than other places in the impositions of the bakers, who fix what price they like, and are most of them in league together.

and bad debts, which must always make a considerable item in this business. If, on the other hand, he calculates on the lowest rate, the profit will be £364 per annum, subject to the same deductions; and this, on a smaller amount of business, is certainly not enough to make any man encounter the risk and trouble. Unfortunately, however, the trade, as a body, are not satisfied with these profits; and probably they cannot make them, unless they have capital enough to go to market with ready money, for if they are obliged to take credit with the miller they may not be able to obtain their flour at the above rates. Hence it is that many of them have recourse to the use of rice or potatoes, or both; and it is said that they adopt the following formula, or with some slight variation in its proportions:Potatoes, of good and floury quality, are first boiled, then mashed with a little water and the addition of a little flour and yeast; this is left for about six hours covered up, which allows of considerable fermentation, and when the baker is satisfied that it is carried far enough, he dilutes the whole with water until it is thin enough to be strained through a sieve, by which he guards against the presence of any lumps of potato in the bread. The strained mixture is now worked up with flour into the proper consistence to form the sponge, which is the name given to the dough as ready for the division into loaves. In the course of the sponge-setting, however, more flour and water are added, as required; and it is at this time that the alum, hards, or stuff, are added-these being the several names for the same thing, and the base in each case being the first-named drug. The proportion of potatoes used varies greatly, but it is soinetimes, I believe, nearly one-half of that of the flour, and very frequently onethird. Very often rice and potatoes are used in equal proportions, the compound being mixed with an equivalent in weight of flour; and this is said to make a very good bread, but rapidly becoming dry. When these substances are used, the profit

841. THE WEIGHT OF THE QUARTERN LOAF being 4 lb., according to the Act passed in 1836, it should bear some relation in price to the equivalent quantity of flour, yet this is by no means always the case. It is quite true that a sack (or 280 lb.) of flour does not always turn out the same number of loaves; and that after a wet harvest, when the wheat is of a bad quality, the result in loaves is also small, as compared with the weight of flour; still this variation is not sufficient to account for the want of constant uniformity between the prices of the two commodities. There is no element in bread-making, besides the flour, of any consequence in the account, but coals and labour; but even with these corrections, the case cannot be substantiated that bread is always regulated in price by the prime cost of its elementary materials. The average number of 4-lb. loaves from a sack of good flour may be taken at 94, and the wages, yeast, and coals at about 48.; so that to produce this number of loaves the price of a sack of flour must be added to the latter sum, which at the present price for best wheaten bread will be-flour 63s., added to 4s.. making in all 678. for 94 loaves, or, within a very small fraction. 84d per loaf, which is 1d. per loaf only under the lowest price of best bread. This profit scarcely is sufficient for the support of the baker, and therefore not to be objected to by the consumer if the article were really made with this kind of flour; but the fact is, that even for best bread, the highest priced flour is not used, and that instead of paying at this time 63s. for his flour, he is buying it at about 56s. for his best bread, and at 48s. or 49s. for his household-giving him nearly threepence a loaf for profit on each. Now, I am by no means inclined to think that this is too much, when it is considered that thereupon each loaf, supposing their price to be is the trouble of delivery to be incurred, and that in most cases the baker does not sell bread enough to fix the profit at less than this sum. The average business of a baker is seldom, probably, more than 20 sacks a week, and very often not so much; and as each sack will return him about 148, profit, he will make a gross profit on his business, after paying for labour, coals, flour, and yeast, of £14 per week, or £728 a-year, from which are to be deducted the

relatively low, will be nearly cent. per cent. But it must, again, be remembered that these adulterations are chiefly practised in low neighbourhoods, where credit must be given, and where, in consequence, a considerable number of bad debts are incurred.

842. From the foregoing calculations it results, that the cost price of a loaf of pure wheaten flour, of good "seconds" quality, when this flour is 56s. per sack, is rather more

than 7jd.; and when made of good "thirds flour, about 6d. Hence, supposing the price of the best wheaten-flour to be 63s., whenever we find that bread is sold by the bakers at less than the above sums, with a fair addition of 1d. or 14d. per loaf to each, we may conclude that adulterations are practised. At the same time, if we are able to economise by baking at home an article at less cost, we may be pretty sure that it is genuine, and therefore we may consider the saving a real one. By a reference to the published statements of the analyses made by Dr. Hassall, it will be seen that in every case alum was detected in London bread, and that even the League Bread Company, who professed to sell "pure unadulterated bread, full weight, best quality, and the lowest possible price," use this prejudicial drug, though, perhaps, not to the same extent as some other bakers. But, besides these adulterations by alum, it appears that in almost every case bread, as delivered to private houses, is deficient in weight, in many cases to the extent of several ounces in the 4-lb. loaf.

to be detected in the same way as in flour, already described at page 278.

845. BROWN BREAD, as sold by the baker, is seldom a genuine article, but is made up by mixing bran or pollard with inferior flour. The consequence is that it soon becomes dry, and has not that sweet nutty flavour which is due to the presence of all the elements of pure wheat. Whenever this article is desired for invalid purposes, its manufacture should be entrusted to some person who can be depended on, or else it should be made at home, according to the plans set forth in the next chapter.

846. FRENCH BREAD is commonly sold in the shops in the shape of rolls for breakfast purposes, or for use at dinner. It is made with fine flour, milk, and eggs; and after baking, the surface is rasped, by which it is changed in appearance to a delicate pale brown. It is very light and wholesome when well made, and by many people is digested in preference to our English kinds.

their makers.

848. UNFERMENTED BREAD is sometimes sold by the bakers as "digestive bread," or by some other name calculated to catch the eye of the dyspeptic patient. The mode of making and the use of this bread will be found at greater length in the next chapter.

847. BISCUITS are made without yeast, either with or without the addition of butter and sugar. Those made with flour 843. THE AMOUNT OF WATER taken up by alone, and the addition of a very small the flour in making it into bread, according quantity of butter, are called hard or capto an experiment conducted under Dr. tains' biscuits; while sweet and buttery Hassall's supervision, is as follows:-Flour, biscuits are sold as fancy biscuits, and are as used for bread-making, contains about made in enormous quantities at various 17 per cent. of water; and of this flour two wholesale manufacturers', their qualities pounds, when made into bread by the addi-varying almost as much as the names of tion of water and German yeast alone, produced two pounds eight ounces and a half of bread. When two scruples of alum and half an ounce of salt were added, the same quantity of flour became two pounds ten ounces of bread; and when instead of two pounds of wheat-flour a pound and a half of the same quality was mixed with half a pound of rice-flour, with the addition of the alum and salt, the whole weight became two pounds ten ounces and a half. Baker's bread, therefore, may be considered to be composed of one-quarter water, as near as may be-that is to say, supposing that they use alum and rice, or potato-flour, or even alum alone. But pure bread without alum should be composed only of one-fifth water; and the consequence is, that we pay the price of bread for that quantity of water which is above the fifth of the weight of the bread. Dr. Hassall's experiment being made on the small scale, allowed only one-quarter of water in the loaf, but it is well known that a much greater quantity is really united with the bread when made in large masses, and that instead of obtaining 87 loaves from the sack of flour, which would agree with his calculation, they really turn out from 90 to 98, or about 94 on the average.

844 THE ADULTERATIONS IN BREAD are

849 IN PURCHASING BREAD at the baker's, the chief and only thing to be done is to select as honest a tradesman as can be met. with within the near neighbourhood of the house to be supplied. It will be gathered from the foregoing remarks, that as the quality varies greatly, so the price is not the only test; but still it is undoubted, that a high price does not always imply good bread, nor does a moderately low one forbid the production of it. The good manager, therefore, will see that she has as good an article as her neighbourhood will afford at an average price, and will particularly take care that the weight is in accordance with the law a loss of four ounces makes a difference of a halfpenny in the 4-lb. loaf, which is generally the variation between the higher and lower prices; and, therefore, while she fancies she is saving that amount, she may really be doing no such thing.

850. THE LAW relating to the making of bread is guided by 6 & 7 Wm. IV., c. 37, and

its provisions are assimilated to 3 Geo. IV., c. 106, which regulates bakers in the Metropolis. Bread may be made of any weight or size, but must be sold by weight only (French rolls and fancy bread excepted). Bakers to use avoirdupoise weight, and no other. Penalty for using false weights, £5. Bakers delivering bread by cart, &c., to be provided with scales and weights. Bakers convicted of adulterating bread liable to a penalty of £10, and to have their names and abodes advertized in the newspapers. Penalty for adulterating flour, meal, &c., £20. Bread made of mixed meal and flour is to be marked with the letter "M." Magistrates and peace-officers, by warrant, may search bakers' premises, and seize and carry away adulterated flour and meal; penalty for obstructing search, £10. Ingredients for adulterating flour, meal, &c., found on bakers' premises, subject the offender to a penalty of £10; and the like sum for every subsequent offence. Offences occasioned by the wilful default of journeymen-bakers subject them to fine or imprisonment. Bakers not to bake bread or rolls on Sundays, or sell bread or bake pies, &c., after half-past one o'clock in the afternoon; bakings may be delivered until half-past one o'clock, and not later, on Sundays, under the penalty of 20s.

SECT. 10.-GROCERY.

851. THE ARTICLES SOLD BY THE GROCER comprise a very miscellaneous list, of which the chief are-tea, coffee, cocoa, and sugar; to which, however, must be added, spices, arrowroot, tapioca, sago, semolina, rice, raisins, currants, &c.

SUB-SECT. A.-TEA, COFFEE, AND COCOA. 852. TEA, as sold in the shops, is the leaf of the tea-tree, dried and stored for use. These leaves are gathered at three or four different seasons, by which in some measure the different qualities of tea are produced, those first picked being most valuable, and the last coarse and large. The young leaves are narrow, convoluted, and downy; the middle-aged have their edges serrated and veined with more or less delicacy; whilst in the older leaves the serration and venation are more marked; and, in addition, some peculiar hoops are developed along the margins, which are readily seen when they are examined. All teas are divisible into black and green, depending partly upon the age of the leaves, partly upon the locality where grown, and partly upon the method of drying. Thus, the black tea is not only roasted in a shallow iron vessel, called a kuo, but it is also again submitted to the action of a charcoal-fire, in sieves. Green tea, on the other hand, escapes the

| second process. Teas are also rolled by
the hand, when half dry. Black teas are
known as bohea, congou, souchong, and
pekoe; green teas, as twankay, hyson,
imperial, and gunpowder. These qualities
of black and green tea are chiefly dependent
upon the age of the leaves when gathered.
More varieties are known in the trade, but
the above are the leading sections into
which this article is divided. Common teas
are artificially scented as, for instance,
by the cowslip, which is added to the tea in
layers, both being previously dried, and
alternately placed in the canister or chest.
After some days the cowslips are removed
by sifting, and the tea thus scented is
mixed with other teas if too highly scented,
or with more cowslips if not sufficiently so.
This is the process for making cowslip
hyson, but black teas are also similarly
flavoured, and with them the flower of
the cowslip is reduced to a powder and
actually mixed with the tea in the last
roasting process, and left there. Besides
the cowslip, other flowers are used to
scent souchong teas, as the Gardenia florida,
Olea fragrans, and Jasminum sambac.

|
853. AN INFUSION OF BLACK TEA Contains, -
on analysis, gum, saccharine matter, tannin
in large quantities, and theine, which last is
identical with caffeine, both being important
elements, and containing nitrogen. Green
tea almost invariably contains some added
matter, in the shape of glazing or colouring,
consisting in most cases of Prussian blue
or indigo, turmeric powder and china clay.
Many other matters are occasionally used
for the purposes of adulteration, which will
be found described under that head. The
amounts of gum and tannin contained Ja
any infusion are good tests of its value,
but the really useful principle is the theine,
which is the cause of the peculiar effects of
this important article of diet.

854. THEINE, CAFFEINE, THEOBROMINE, AND PIPERINE, are four vegeto-alkalis, identical in composition, and in their effects upon the human body. They are met with in the four most common articles in domestic use, namely, tea, coffee, cocoa or chocolate, and pepper, and in very few other vegetable substances. In making selection of tea, coffee, cocoa, and pepper, man has instinctively, or rather by experience, chosen those substances which will impart the greatest quantity of nitrogen, conjoined with tannin and other conservative principles. They are soluble in about one hundred parts of cold water, and much more readily in boiling water, or if an acid be present. In order to precipitate theine or caffeine, a decoction of common tea or of raw coffee berries, previously crushed, is mixed with excess of solution of basic