were, for although the inhabitants were originally able to satisfy their simple wants, they were no longer able to do so when the demands for the comforts of life had increased, and when their primitive tastes were changed by the times, church, and state.

The few places which in course of time had grown to be actually cities threw off their character as walled villages and became the centers of the administration, where the spiritual and temporal hierarchs demanded greater luxury in all things. The laborers, able to carry out given plans, were wholly lacking in individual thought and design. Their more than primitive houses, lack of manual skill, simple tools, and want of taste, soon induced, however, the importation of foreign masters, who were quick to recognize the peasants' capability and worth.

The advantages of permanently settling in the cities soon became apparent to the peasants. A part decided to remain and the rest, whilst dwelling in their villages, sought employment temporarily and occasionally in the cities.

Thus arose three groups, the wandering, the city, and the village industries, the second of which was most exposed to the tendencies of the age, whilst the wandering and village industries retained their patriarchal character for centuries.

The artisans of the cities had to submit to the changes of every municipal system. Originally free, their organizations were also free; and mutually dependent upon each other, and dwelling, each craft in its own particular steet or quarter, they were ignorant of the distinctions of apprentice, journeyman or master.

Soon, however, the influence of the foreign masters, who were devoted advocates of the guild system, began to be felt, and it became an accepted article of belief that the stagnation of the Russian industry was due to the absence of guilds.

The Government, however, was too much occupied to pay much attention to such a subject, and matters remained with but little change from decennium to decennium. The reforming hand of Peter the Great, was the first to touch this industrial department. It was his intention, in imitation of the Western European system, to divide the crafts into two great groups, a city guild and a manufacturing industry, but the factors he had to deal with were unequal to the task imposed upon them. He believed himself able to elevate the craftsmen to the level of those of Western Europe by creating a class of craftsmen in the cities, and turning the village artisan into a factory hand. He forgot however, that there could be no city artisan class in a land which, though possessing 30,000,000 inhabitants, had an urban population of but 300,000; and his trade regulations had consequently but a morbid existence.

Promulgated in 1721, this regulation divided the burghers into two classes, or guilds. To the second, which was subdivided into two sections, all craftsmen belonged, viz, to the first section, artists, gold and silver smiths; to the second section, all other artisans. Each trade was compelled to organize itself under the presidency of an elder, and the rules governing it were minutely detailed.

These regulations gave the trades a new form, but did not change their character, and the guilds never attained the importance acquired by those of Western Europe. The Russian artisan class was chiefly recruited from the serfs, who had no interest in an institution which neither accorded them their freedom nor lightened their burdens.

Skilled artificers were consequently not produced, but a mass of half trained craftsmen, who became artisans merely to escape field labor.

The Government was accordingly soon compelled to institute changes, but nothing like a radical cure was effected, nothing to the material benefit of the laboring classes. Catherine the Second, who recognized the fact that free labor was the only deliverance for the Russian artisan, but who did not act upon her convictions, was the next to legislate for this class. Her good intentions, however, were wrecked on the rocks of conflicting circumstances.

But little actual good was effected until the reforms of Alexander II were inaugurated, when a committee, appointed in 1852 and ending its labors in 1869, reported in favor of the repeal of the old guild laws and advocated the formation of trade associations, artels, &c.

The new system accorded each trade full freedom and protected it as soon as it organized itself on the principles of mutual assistance.

Thus, in the course of time, the urban artisans have returned to their original starting point, viz, co-operative associations, or artels.

At the period when reformatory ideas began to manifest themselves in the urban crafts, we left the patriarchal associative trades in their villages. The Government doubtless entertained the idea of gradually extending the guild system to them also, but the conviction that the village industry would never prove anything but a profitable supplementary employment prevented it from doing so, and they were left to develop in a normal manner, as in other lands.

The period of serfdom, however, interrupted all development and prevented every association for individual profit or advantage.

The peasant serf, to whom agriculture and handicraft were no longer the same as

to the free man, when seeking other work was compelled to leave his former association and throw himself upon the mercy of some rich koolocki" merchant or other person contemplating the erection of a factory.

But the still active love of independence dwelling in the Russian peasant, and his antipathy to the regular methodical work peculiar to factories, deterred rather than attracted him to such employment. Factories received as their contingent the worst of the peasant class or those to whom the factory was the last resort.

Factories flourished consequently only where many hands and little skill were to be found. Dissatisfied with such a state of affairs manufacturers, under an edict of 1723, proceeded to acquire both land and peasants by purchase.

They soon discovered that the Russian peasant, whose skill though small was able nevertheless, if left to his own methods and not harried with innovations, to produce goods capable of successfully competing with poorer factory wares. Properly encouraged this system would have produced an incomparable village industry, but the efforts of capitalists, to the middle of the nineteenth century, were directed to the maintenance of an unnatural factory system.

The system prevailed until the emancipation of the serfs, when an industry, based upon slavery and ignorance, fell with the system which sustained it. This did not imply a dissolution of existing conditions.

Handicraft is for the Russian peasant a vital question. It was sought in many districts to expunge the elements still lingering from the days of serfdom; in others the rural laborer sought free and independent employment, but becoming conscious of the powerlessness of individual effort they, too, under the influence of inherited ideas, turned to the artel, or associative society, as a means of salvation.

Until the seventeenth century these associations were denominated "vataga," when they began to be called "artels." This borrowed word, whose derivation is uncertain, has singularly enough become the name of a peculiarly Russian institution.

According to some the word is a corruption of the German "antheil," or share, to work on shares, whilst others derive it from the Turkish "orta," community. The trade of Nischin-Novgorod with the Germans speaks for the former; the Samoyeds, Kareles, and similar tribes among whom like associations of the most primitive kind still prevail, speak for the second derivation. But be this as it may, the institution was already long dear to the Russians when the name appeared.

In general "artel" is understood to mean an association of several persons who have united their capital and labor, or the latter only, for the purpose of carrying on trades or work with an individual and collective responsibility. In addition, the primary principle of the union demands a voluntary admission as well of the maxim that actual labor only, and never borrowed or endowed capital, can confer membership as that an absolute equality of the members justifies for similar labor equal wages, from which, without the consent of all, no deductions for village or municipal dues can be made.

The fundamental principles of every enterprise are risk and responsibility. In the artel the proportional risk is accompanied by an unlimited responsibility. Thereby the credit of associations with small capital is increased, as well as a guarantee given for the proper effectuation of all orders received.

The unlimited responsibility necessitates a limited membership, prevents an immediate extension of business, and calls forth a certain amount of caution. This is all the more necessary since the contracting party is not an individual employer, but one itself bound in every instance to become an active member. The circulating ability of the wares is consequently increased, since the artel, employing no hired labor, performs as one man every operation itself.

The book-keeping is restricted by the absolute equality of all members to a simple registration of income and outlay, the final division of the balance being determined at a general meeting of the members.

A significant example of the applied theory is given by the following artels, the first of which is of a thoroughly primitive nature. It exists in the government of Vladimir. Here several villagers unite their small capital in order to purchase iron, which is then made into scythes in the common smithy. The scythes are intrusted to a member, who is detailed to sell them in the neighboring towns and villages. The orders he receives are promptly executed, and the profit is equally divided among

all members.

Such artels are more completely organized in the government of Moscow. Here neighboring villages in which the joiners, lock and black smiths prevail, unite and determine the amount of capital they intend operating with. Having decided upon 2,000 rubles, the amount is raised by voluntary contributions of the villagers.

Only inhabitants of these villages who take active part in the association can become members. Such a member can be elected one of the committee of management, whose duty it is to procure the raw materials and sell the products.

After deducting the cost of the raw materials, 70 per cent. of the receipts are di

vided among the industrious members and 30 per cent. are put aside as a reserve fund. Idle members are either expelled or must submit to a deduction, determined by a vote of all the members.

From the foregoing it will be seen that the village industry has largely preserved its primitive character. All business transactions, based on mutual confidence, are conducted by word of mouth, and at the close of the yearly accounts the same round is begun again, the artels annually renewing and reconstructing themselves. Such artels enjoyed the favor of the Government, which assisted them by orders, &c. The following will serve as an example:

In 1860 certain Government factories for manufacturing percussion caps for artillery use were elosed as being too expensive. Several artisans familiar with the process of manufacture, hearing of this, resolved to form an artel which would undertake to execute the Government orders.

Thirty-three thousand caps were ordered as an experiment, and the artel was permitted to use the Government works. The artel, consisting of sixty members, finished the order within the stipulated time, and a cap which had cost the Government from 50 to 100 copecks was delivered by the artel for 44g copecks.

Encouraged by their success the artel was increased to one hundred and fifty members, and an order for 180,000 caps accepted, under the condition that the work should bedone in the artel's workshops and the price reduced 4 copecks. Notwithstanding that this condition involved an expense of 17,500 rubles the order was executed to the satisfaction of all concerned.

Other and larger orders were filled at still lower prices, and as the Government could only keep them employed for nine months, they began to manufacture for own risk and account. Besides its financial success the artel has been in many ways a source of inestimable benefit to the district it is situated in.

Town and city artels rest on a similar basis, excepting that the Government demands a written constitution and by-laws, which must have the sanction of the minister of the interior.

The condition of the artels of the wandering trades, although they possess the largest contingent of laborers, is not so satisfactory. Being without capital they are compelled to look to some large builder or contractor, who employs them to perform mason, carpenter, and similar work. An elder instructs them in all they have to do, and is the connecting link between them and their employer.

These laborers deserve the name of artel, all independence having been lost by them, only inasmuch as they gain their necessaries of life in common. They elect a comrade who must procure each week's supplies, and weekly account therefor. If fed by the employer then his duties are limited to finding lodgings and advocating the interests of the artel before the elder.

The foregoing examples are sufficient to characterize the handicraft or artisan's artels.

II.-LABORERS' ARTELS.

The artels of the common laborer are no less important than those of the craftsmen, for whilst the latter prevail in districts which have always been the cradle of Russian industry, the former are to be found in districts where neither nature nor circumstances favor their development.

They may be divided into two kinds, viz, dependent, or such as rely absolutely upou foreign capital, and independent, or such as furnish their own capital for their enterprises. The former belong to the artels devoted to the capture of marine mammals, such as the walrus and seal, and the cod, salmon, and herring. The latter includes the lumbering and agricultural artels.

A.-ARTELS FOR CATCHING SEA ANIMALS.

1. Walrus hunters.

These artels existed as early as the thirteenth century, but no chronicles of their form and character are found prior to the seventeenth century. These artels gradually extended their expeditions from the Petschora River to Nova Zembla, and with but little change assumed the form which prevails at present. One form has, however, entirely disappeared, viz, that wherein several peasants united their capital, tools, and labor. This rational form, where all shared alike and no one took the lion's share, was incapable of existing, and there remain only such artels whose members contribute but their labor, and receive everything else from the venturer.

Such artels consisted generally of fifteen men, whose captain demanded and received an implicit obedience. This captain was either the venturer himself, or some one chosen by him, who enjoyed special privileges and received a larger share than the others of the booty.

This booty was divided into seventeen shares, of which the venturer received two for the vessel and one for the captain, the remaining fourteen being divided among the members of the artel according to previous agreement.

The smallness of the individual share is evidenced by an account dated 1694, when an artel of fourteen persons, sent out by the archbishopric of Cholmogory, received but of 14 lays, the venturer retaining 17. As the booty was 41 pounds of walrus teeth, 17 walrus skins, and 15 casks of oil, valued in all at 75 rubles, it is clear that the individual did not get much of a return for his labor.

In the eighteenth century matters were greatly changed. Count Thouvaloff obtained from the Empress Catherine the exclusive right of hunting sea mammals in the Polar Seas, and thus became the sole venturer and purchaser of all the animals captured. Under this monopoly a marine code was established which governed all walrus-hunting artels.

These artels consisted of from eight to twenty men under the command of a captain appointed by the monopolist. The booty was divided into two equal shares, of which the monopolist received one, the artel the other. But as these artels wintered in Nova Zembla the venturer had to provide for long voyages, the men suffered from scurvy, and the costs generally were out of proportion to the return.

Often several artels united to form a large artel, the products of the chase being divided equally among the different artels.

The nineteenth century brought but little change. The venturer furnished now the money, utensils, and provisions, and demanded a larger share of the booty, which must be sold to him only, whereby the artel became more dependent on the venturer than ever.

The artels, eight to fifteen men, seldom winter in Nova Zembla now. They set out in May and return in September. The supplies for each man, valued at about 20 rubles, are 112 pounds rye and barley meal, 54 pounds barley_groats, dried oat-meal, salted codfish and meats, 9 pounds of butter, hemp oil, &c. The catch, or what the venturer gives for it, is usually divided into three times as many shares as there are members in the artel. Of these shares the venturer receives two-thirds, the artel onethird, and of the shares falling to the artel the captain receives four or five, his mate one or two, and the balance is divided among the remaining members.

The value of the catch of an artel has been for many years, on the average, about 1,500 rubles. Two-thirds, or 1,000 rubles go to the venturer, one-third, or 500 rubles, to the artel, so that at most each man would receive about 50 rubles. In fact they receive nothing like so much, for their shares are paid in goods, on which the venturer earns at least 20 per cent.

The number of artels has consequently greatly decreased. At the beginning of the present century there were one hundred, in 1867 but fourteen, in 1872 only five. Unless changes are made and capital comes to the rescue they will soon have disappeared entirely.

2. Seal hunters.

The seal-hunting artels, which are the most important in this category, are mentioned already in the fifteenth century. They are divided according to their hunting grounds into definite groups, which also influence their organization more or less. Since the inhabitants of the eastern and western coasts of the White Sea are engaged in sealing, the artels are distinguished chiefly by their resorts; thus the winter coast in the district of Mesen; the summer coast in the districts of Archangel and Onega, and the ter coast in the district of Kem.

The most favored resort is the winter coast, and thither proceed the various artels to labor from January to May.

The artels of the Archangel and Mesen districts set out in January, so as to reach the general rendezvous by February, whence each artel proceeds to its hunting ground along the coast. Here their huts, of which the Archangel artels possess one hundred, are erected, each hut denoting an artel.

The organization of the artels of the Archangel Simnij Putj is as follows: They consist, according to the size of the boat, which must carry also all the supplies and utensils, of from two to five men. The smaller and lighter the boat the easier and less dangerous the work, for besides at times having to drag their boat long stretches over the ice, they must at other times be ready at a moment's warning to row for their lives.

The boat and all supplies are furnished by the venturer, who is generally also an active member of the artel.

Instead of as in former years dividing the entire catch into equal shares, the booty each member is now divided, according to agreement, into halves or fifths, a half or two-fifths going to the members, the balance to the leader or promoter of the expedition.

In the Mesen district the artels consist of seven members. The booty is divided

into eight shares, of which the boat is assigned one; the remainder is distributed between venturer and artel as described above.

The artels hunting on the Kedoff, Ustin, Konuschin, and Veschnij grounds are organized on pretty much the same plan as the foregoing. The total number cngaged in sealing is as follows:

The average, therefore, of each artel is five members. Assuming that each member caught 8 seals, the entire booty would be 65,600 seals which, at 3 rubles, the price usually paid, gives 196,800 rubles as the return for four months' work.

If this sum, which is much less than the actual amount realized, remained entirely in the possession of the artels it would be of the greatest benefit to the district. Unfortunately, however, three-fifths of the whole falls to the share of capitalists, whilst of the remaining two-fifths the individual member seldom receives more than one-tenth of his share in cash, but is, under the pernicious truck system, compelled to accept the balance in wares at exhorbitant prices.

B. FISHING ARTELS.

1. Artels for codfishing.

These artels, which are first mentioned in the seventeenth century, consisted of two kinds, viz, one in which the members participated with capital and labor and one with his labor only. The former succumbed to adverse influences apparently, as at the beginning of the eighteenth century all mention of it ceases, whilst the latter form still exists.

These artels were fitted out by the archbishops, who, until 1704, had the monopoly of the fisheries, when Peter the Great, under certain restrictions, opened the fisheries of the Murman coast to all. Private capitalists replaced the archbishops without, however, improving in any way the condition of the artels.

At present the artels organize themselves either at the close of the old or the beginning of the new season, grouping themselves about one venturer to the number of from one to eight artels with from four to thirty-two members. Everything must be ready for the expedition by the beginning of March. Long prevailing custom regulates the mode of division, and as soon as it is definitely settled what the captain of the artel is to get extra preparations are made for departing.

Prior to their selling out, the "venturer" gives the members of the artel a hearty dinner, furnishes each with wooden spoons, some cloth, and from 50 copecks to a ruble in money. The cost of the journey from the home of the "artelstricks" to the rendezvous, 100 versts beyond Kola, must be borne by them. Their poverty forces them to travel afoot and drag their provisions and utensils on sledges behind them. In this manner they journey many hundreds of versts, sheltering themselves as best they can until on arriving at the rendezvous the venturer assumes charge of them. Then follows a season of utter idleness, which, following immediately on the steps of intense exertion, produces, in connection with bad food and worse quarters, some sickness.

During the long and heavy work which follows, plenty of cabbage, with but little bread and groats, form the bulk of their diet. Ten to twenty men sleep in low buts of 3 or 4 square fathoms' space, and every summer fever, typhus, and scurvy rage on the Murman coast.

Of the catch, two-thirds belongs to the "venturer" and one-third to the artel, who, unlike the seal hunters, are not obliged to sell to the venturer only, though, as he pays the Archangel price, they generally do so.

Of the one-third belonging to the artel, each member receives one-half. There are annually fishing off the Murman coast about 700 artels with 2,800 members. The average yield is 650,000 poods of codfish (16,700 tons), which bring in Archangel